EBOOK LUSI
MAZZINI 2009
https://sites.google.com/site/lusilibraryhardi2010/mazzini/mudvolcanism
Geyser Lusi mud volcano (Feb. 2015)
Posture of North Lusi mud volcano (Feb. 2015)
Mud volcanism: Processes and implications
- Pages 1677-1680
Marine and Petroleum Geology
journal
homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo
0264-8172/$ –
Editorial
Mud volcanoes: generalities and proposed mechanisms
Marine and Petroleum Geology
Mazzini
Marine and Petroleum Geology 26
(2009) 1677-1680
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Editorial Mud volcanism: Processes
and implications Mud volcanoes: generalities and proposed mechanisms Mud volcanoes can
be large and long lived geological ...
seismo.berkeley.edu/~manga/mazzini2009.pdf
Mud volcanoes generalities and proposed mechanism
Mud volcanoes can be large and long lived geological structures that
morphologically resemble magmatic volcanoes.
Because of their capricious behavior and their spectacular morphology and
landscapes, mud volcanoes have attracted attention since antiquity.
More recently, mud volcanoes have become the focus of extensive studies for
natural science research, including geologists and biologists.
Mud volcanoes can be essentially divided in two groups: those associated
with magmatic complexes and those related to petroleum provinces.
Their occurrence is broadly distributed throughout the globe in both
passive and predominantly active margins, often situated along faults,
fault-related folds, and anticline axes.
These structures act as preferential pathways for deep fluids to gather and
ultimately reach the surface. Mud volcanoes episodically experience violent
eruptions of large amounts of gas mixed with water, oil, mud and rock fragments
forming the so called ‘‘mud breccia’’.
The periodical eruptions can produce volcano-shaped mountains that can reach
kilometres in size.
Detailed studies of mud volcanoes have been conducted for decades (e.g.
Jakubov et al., 1971; Higgins and Saunders, 1974; Barber et al., 1986; Brown,
1990; Camerlenghi et al., 1992; Kholodov, 2002; Kopf, 2002).
Below I summarize the main findings so far, combined with my own suggested
mechanisms (Fig. 1).
The main driving engine of the eruptions is overpressured methane rising
from source rocks and hydrocarbon reservoirs at greater depths.
Other known overpressure buildup mechanisms that contribute to the
brecciation of the deep sedimentary units include for example the dewatering of
thick clay-rich sedimentary units, and geochemical reactions in sedimentary
units with high temperature gradients. These fluids overpressured fluids gather
along morphological discontinuities and favorable geological structures (e.g.
fault planes, anticline axes, preexisting deformations).
During this overpressure buildup a dome or diapir-shaped feature of
brecciated sedimentary units forms in the subsurface. The rise of the fluids
and the growth if this diaper is partly self-sustained by buoyancy and by the
constantly increasing volume of fluids at shallower depth.\ A suggested
scenario summarizing the birth of a mud volcano and the eruption mechanisms envisages
that when the subsurface overpressure reaches a threshold depth where the
overburden weight is exceeded, fracturing and breaching of the uppermost units
occur, sometimes facilitated by external factors (e.g. earthquakes).
Brecciated sediments throughout the feeder channel have a reduced cohesion.
As breaching of the overburden occurs, the accumulated pressure drops and the
lower cohesion media is easily fluidized and ultimately vacuumed to the
surface.
This suggested mechanism does no imply significant movement of the
brecciated sediments prior to the eruption neither during the growth of the
emerging diapir.
An eruption where large rocks rise directly from the roots of the feeder
channel all the way up to the surface, is unrealistic to happen. This is
especially unlikely when considering basins like the Caspian where some mud
volcanoes have root as deep as 15 km.
I suggest that the huge blocks observed at some mud volcano locations and
proven to originate from several kilometres of depth, reach the surface after
several eruptive cycles, each one contributing to the rise
of the oldest sediments. In this sense, I envisage that the youngest
eruptions have a larger amount of old rocks.
The intimate association of petroleum reservoirs and mud volcanoes in sedimentary
basins makes such structures interesting for hydrocarbon exploration. However
mud volcanoes may also pose a geohazard for drilling and platform constructions
due to the potentially violent release of large amounts of hydrocarbons and mud
breccia.
Additionally, the eruption of greenhouse gases via mud volcanoes may
influence global climate regimes and several attempts to estimate their
contribution have been made.
Offshore mud volcanoes are frequently associated with
the presence of gas hydrates. As these buried methane reserves are likely to be
exploited in the future, mud volcanoes will undoubtedly remain a key part of
the geological arena.
The special issue
The idea of a special issue on mud volcanism was suggested by Elsevier
after the successful AGU session on ‘‘Mud volcanoes and their eruption
dynamics’’ held in San Francisco in December 2007.
Marine and Petroleum Geology Journal was the best choice to gather
contributions on mud volcanism investigated both onshore and offshore with constantly
updated approaches.
Mud volcanoes represent a relatively young field of study especially when
compared with the more popular magmatic volcanoes.
A special issue devoted entirely to mud volcano contexts, processes, and resultant landforms is both relevant and timely
not only because the subject is gaining increased attraction within the
scientific community but also because a cohesive presentation of the state of
research is required to direct avenues of research.
There are several issues that still remain unresolved. For example what are
the geochemical reactions that occur during the rise of fluids at dormant
stage? Is it possible to predict mud volcano eruptions? What are the possible
triggers for the eruptions?
Is there any rise of the brecciated sediments along the conduit prior to an
eruption? From what depth are the solids being erupted during a single event?
What do the seeping fluids tell us?
This special issue aims to provide an overview of the different settings
and disciplines to investigate mud volcanoes and their processes, and to
present the state-of-the-art in the most recent ongoing research.
The themes described in this issue (Fig. 2) are divided in five main
sections: 1) Onshore mud volcanism, 2) Lusi mud volcano, 3) Offshore mud volcanism,
4) Extraterrestrial mud volcanism, 5) Modelling mud volcano eruptions.
Essentially all offshore and onshore mud volcanoes are studied during their
dormant period (intervals between eruptions that are characterized by no
seepage, or micro seepage or focused seepage of fluids and sediments). Onshore
mud volcano provinces are located throughout the globe mainly in collisional
settings. Sampling onshore is facilitated and petrography and geochemical
analyses of the seeping sediments and fluids represent the most traditional
approach to explore the geometry of
the subsurface plumbing system and the origin of the fluids during the
quiescent periods. Using this type of approach, Etiope et al. (2009) and
Mazzini et al. (2009) tried to estimate the main geochemical processes ongoing
in the feeder channel and in the near subsurface during the dormant activity.
New analytical and monitoring approaches (e.g., cyclicity of the eruptions,
temperature logging, and penetrometry tests) are also described aiming to understand
the mechanisms ongoing during the slow seepage of fluids and to predict the
charging of the mud volcano system prior to new eruptions (Deville and
Guerlais, 2009; Kopf et al., 2009).
Studies of erupting mud volcanoes are exceptional.
The 29th of May 2006 eruption of the Lusi mud volcano (Indonesia) provided
a unique opportunity to experiment with multidisciplinary studies an erupting
mud volcano from its birth. This seemingly unstoppable eruption (to date, June
2009) is an ideal event to constrain the mechanisms driving mud volcano
eruptions and their association and similarities with magmatic volcanoes.
Moreover, the artificial dams built around the crater provide an exceptional
setting that allows sampling of fluids from the crater during the eruption.
Lusi represent a real natural laboratory to explore the origin of fluids
during eruption events (as opposite to common studies) and to distinguish
between the possible triggers and, most importantly, the causes that lead to an
eruption. Novel multidisciplinary studies that are described herein include a
review of triggering mechanisms complemented with GPS monitoring, SAR
interferometry, mathematical and analogue simulations. These are used to
monitor and to understand the Lusi event as well as provide possible
alternatives to explain the trigger of Lusi and other mud volcanoes (Fukushima
et al., 2009; Istadi et al., 2009; Manga et al., 2009; Mazzini et al., 2009;
Sawolo et al., 2009).
Numerous studies of offshore mud volcanoes have been completed during the
last decades. This issue describes acoustic, video and sampling techniques from
recently discovered mud volcano provinces in the Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of
Mexico and Black Sea.
Deep seismic and sides can sonar approaches are used to define the morphology,
the history of the activity of volcanoes as well as the internal structure of
the feeder channel (Praeg et al., 2009; Savini et al., 2009).
Detailed studies on the near subsurface, including fluid flow rates,
thermal anomalies and video-sampling observations, describe the possible link
between gas hydrates stability and the eruption dynamics, and give important
estimate about the transport of methane to the atmosphere (Feseker et al.,
2009; MacDonald and Peccini, 2009; Sahling et al., 2009).
The phenomenon of mud volcanism has been recently suggested for other
planets in the solar system and in particular for Mars.
Here, we describe recent studies that review the possible regions where
Martian sedimentary basins might fulfil the requirements for mud volcanism and
where satellite surveys reveal images similar to those observed in mud volcano
provinces on Earth (Skinner and Mazzini, 2009).
Despite the numerous studies, the mechanisms controlling mud volcano
eruptions are still debated.
Among the most advanced and innovative approaches are the numerical
modeling simulations.
In this special issue are included some examples of revolutionary
techniques that help to test hypotheses from the bosom of the Earth exploring
the cyclicity and the parameters controlling the blasts (Gisler, 2009;
Zoporowski and Miller, 2009).
Fig. 2. Some spectacular examples of onshore, offshore and
extraterrestrial mud volcanoes.
(A) Tuorogai Mud volcano (Azerbaijan) is
considered to be one of the biggest onshore mud volcanoes, with estimated 343
millions cubic meters of mud breccia reaching a size between 2900 and 3200 m
and a height of 500 m (Jakubov et al., 1971).
(B) Steam-dominated eruption of
the Lusi mud volcano where mud was ejected in the air for several tens of
meters. Note the trees in the background. Since May 2006 the Lusi mud volcano
is erupting mud that is now covering a surface of nearly 7 km2. The flooded
area would certainly be much wider without the containment dams that are
constantly build around to protect the surrounding villages. Image courtesy of
the Lusi Media Center.
(C) Inferred mud volcano features on the Martian
surface, located in the Galaxias Fossae region.
Note the moat surrounding the conical shape similar to collapse features
observed on Earth and the flow towards the south east. Excerpt of THEMIS
V19054019, centered at 141.0E, 38.9N,19 m/px.
(D) High-resolution 3D seismic
data show the internal structure of the Mercator mud volcano and a buried
diapir in the Gulf of Cadiz (after Berndt et al., 2007). Horizontal scale ca. 6
km. (E) Historic seismic profile of MSU mud volcano, Black Sea (Ivanov et al.,
1992).
Acknowledgements
T. Horscroft, A. Plummer, O. Catuneanu and M. Ivanov are thanked for their
support and enthusiasm during the preparation of this manuscript. I am grateful
to all the authors that contributed to this special issue.
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A. Mazzini*Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Box
1048, 0316 Oslo, Norway
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